A Cancer stem cell is a cancer cell thought to have “stem-like” abilities to self-renew and to produce different types of tumor cells. In plain terms, it is a small sub-group of cells inside some tumors that may help the cancer grow back or spread. The term is commonly used in cancer biology research and in discussions about treatment resistance and recurrence. It may also appear in clinical trial descriptions and some specialized pathology or molecular testing reports.

Clonal evolution is how groups of cancer cells change over time as they grow and divide. It describes how some cell “clones” gain advantages that help them survive or resist treatment. The term is commonly used in oncology, hematology-oncology, and cancer genomics. It helps explain why cancers can behave differently within the same tumor or between patients.

Neoantigen means a “new” antigen that forms when cancer cells acquire genetic changes. It is a small protein fragment (peptide) that can be displayed on a cancer cell and recognized by the immune system as foreign. Neoantigen concepts are commonly used in cancer immunotherapy, especially personalized vaccines and T-cell–based treatments. It is also used in research and clinical trials to help understand why some tumors respond to immune therapies.

An Immune checkpoint is a built-in “brake” system that helps keep the immune response from becoming too strong. It uses specific molecules on immune cells and other cells to slow down immune activity when needed. In cancer care, Immune checkpoint pathways are commonly discussed because many tumors use them to evade immune attack. They are also the biological targets of a major class of immunotherapy medicines called checkpoint inhibitors.

Angiogenesis means the formation of new blood vessels from existing blood vessels. It is a normal process in growth, healing, and reproduction. In cancer, Angiogenesis can help tumors get oxygen and nutrients so they can grow. In oncology care, Angiogenesis is commonly discussed as a treatment target and as a marker of tumor behavior.

Tumor microenvironment means the “neighborhood” around a cancer, not just the cancer cells themselves. It includes immune cells, blood vessels, connective tissue, signaling molecules, and surrounding normal cells. Clinicians and researchers use Tumor microenvironment to explain why cancers grow, spread, or resist treatment. It is commonly discussed in pathology reports, immunotherapy planning, and cancer research.

CHIP is short for **clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential**. It means a **group of blood-forming cells** has acquired a **cancer-associated gene change**, but there is **no blood cancer diagnosis** at the time. CHIP is most often found through **genetic testing (NGS)** of blood or bone marrow done for cancer care or blood count evaluation. It is a **finding and risk marker**, not a cancer diagnosis by itself.

Clonal hematopoiesis is when a group (“clone”) of blood-forming cells expands because it carries certain acquired (non-inherited) genetic changes. It is most often found through DNA sequencing tests done on blood. It becomes more common with aging and can show up during cancer testing even when a person does not have a blood cancer. In oncology care, it matters because it can affect how clinicians interpret “blood-based” genetic test results.

PCR testing is a laboratory method that detects or measures specific genetic material (DNA or RNA). It works by amplifying tiny amounts of genetic sequences so they can be identified and reported. It is commonly used in oncology to help classify cancers, track disease, and detect infections in immunocompromised patients.

Karyotype is a laboratory test that looks at the number and structure of chromosomes inside cells. It provides a “chromosome map” to identify large genetic changes, such as extra, missing, or rearranged chromosomes. In oncology, it is commonly used in blood cancers and some solid tumors to support diagnosis and risk assessment. It is also used in prenatal and inherited (germline) genetic evaluations, depending on the clinical question.