Germline testing looks for inherited DNA changes that a person is born with. It is commonly used in cancer care to assess hereditary risk and to support treatment planning. Testing is usually done on blood or saliva rather than tumor tissue. Results can also be relevant to biologic relatives because inherited variants can run in families.

Molecular profiling is a way to study a cancer’s genes and related biomarkers. It looks for changes that may help describe how a tumor behaves. It is commonly used in oncology to support diagnosis and treatment planning. It may be done on tumor tissue, blood, or other body fluids.

Immunophenotyping is a laboratory method that identifies cells by the markers (proteins) on their surface or inside the cell. It uses antibodies as “tags” to detect these markers and describe a cell’s type and maturity. It is commonly used in hematology-oncology (blood cancers) and also supports diagnosis and treatment planning in many solid tumors.

Histopathology is the microscopic study of tissue to look for disease. It helps clinicians understand what a lump, lesion, or abnormal area is made of. In cancer care, Histopathology is central to confirming a diagnosis and describing tumor features. It is most commonly used after a biopsy or surgery, when tissue is sent to a pathology laboratory.

Gross examination is the first hands-on assessment of a tissue or organ specimen after it is removed from the body. It means looking at the specimen with the naked eye and measuring, describing, and sampling it for further testing. It is commonly performed in pathology laboratories after a biopsy or surgery. It helps connect what clinicians see on imaging and in the operating room with what is confirmed under the microscope.

Frozen section is a rapid laboratory method used to examine tissue during a surgery. It helps a pathologist provide a preliminary diagnosis or surgical guidance in near real time. It is commonly used in cancer-related operations to assess what a mass is or whether margins look clear. It is part of “intraoperative consultation,” meaning pathology support provided while the patient is still in the operating room.

Second opinion pathology is an independent review of pathology material by another pathologist or pathology team. It re-checks a diagnosis made from tissue or cells, such as a biopsy or surgery specimen. It is commonly used in cancer care before starting or changing major treatments. It may also be used for complex, rare, or borderline findings where interpretation can be difficult.

Pathology review is a careful re-check of tissue, cells, and test results by a pathologist. It is commonly used in cancer care to confirm a diagnosis and refine key details about a tumor. It may involve looking again at microscope slides, repeating specific stains, or re-interpreting reports. Pathology review is often requested before major treatment decisions or when opinions differ.

Calcium is a mineral the body uses to build and maintain bones and teeth. It also helps nerves, muscles (including the heart), and blood clotting work normally. In oncology care, Calcium is discussed in lab results, nutrition, and supportive medications. It may be taken in food or supplements, or given by IV in specific clinical situations.

Potassium is an essential mineral and electrolyte that helps cells function normally. It is measured in blood tests and is commonly managed in hospitals and cancer clinics. Potassium can be taken in food, given as an oral supplement, or delivered by intravenous (IV) infusion. In oncology care, it is often monitored and corrected as part of supportive care during treatment.